Modelling Programmes for Industrial Scale Drug Production

Modelling Programmes for Industrial Scale Drug Production Different modelling programs of the production of a drug on an industrial scale Crystallisation: Crystallisation is usually used for the split-up, purification and the creation stage in the chemical industries. It is one of the oldest and most crucial unit operations. Crystallisation is a practical method of gaining a chemical substance that is concentrated. This concentrated chemical substance is in a form that is nice and simple to handle. There are various ways in which crystallisation could be carried out, such as melt, vapour and solution. However, recently melt has been the most popular one as there are great demands for it because of its good purification technique. Chemist always wants to get the chemicals they make as pure as possible and a good way of purifying chemicals is to make crystals of them. When they are in solution, you can have all sorts of impurities. But when they form crystals, the crystals the crystals contain much purer compounds than in the solutions. And the impurities are left in the solution. Generally, the crystals are a very precise arrangement of molecules all the same fitting together. The impurity has a different shape so it doesn’t fit in properly. Sometimes we get an impurity that is the wrong shape and we can get rid of it. Each time we recrystallise it e.g. make some solution, form crystals, filter them out, re-dissolve them, and form more crystals. Each time we crystallise it we get a purer and purer compound. Sometimes in the old days people crystallised thousands of times to get something really pure. The problem is that when you have a solution even if you want to cool it down which is the standard way of getting crystals to form. The crystals cannot form unless you get it something small for the first crystal to form around. Once the first one goes, the whole lot goes (Ssci-inc.com, 2014). There are three following steps in which the development of a certain crystal for the duration of crystallisation process follows. The three following steps that it continues over are; nucleation, crystal growth and Ostwald ripening. Embryos are created by the molecules of the substance combined, in the nucleation step. A macroscopic crystal can be created if the circumstances are for example if the embryo is allowed to reach a critical size known as nucleus. However, the embryo will dissolve if the circumstance is such that it is not possible to reach the critical nuclear size. Crystallising substance can exist in more than one crystalline phase for example; solvates or polymorphs. If that’s the case then each stage will have its own specific embryonic combined and nucleus. The differen t embryos in the supersaturated solution compete for solute molecules (Ssci-inc.com, 2014). The type of embryo that first reaches the critical nuclear size forms a nucleus for that particular crystalline phase and hence enables that phase to grow into macroscopic crystals. Because of the time that is involved in the competition for nucleation this step is controlled by kinetic considerations on condition that that the thermodynamic driving force for the formation of the crystallizing phase is favourable, i.e., ΔG is negative (Ssci-inc.com, 2014). Drug Design: Drug design is sometimes referred to as rational drug design. This is the inventive process of finding new medications based on the knowledge of a biological target. The drug is usually an organic small molecule that activates or inhibits the function of a biomolecule e.g. such as a protein, which in turn results in a therapeutic benefit to the patient. Drug design, in the most basic sense, involves the design of small molecules that are complementary in shape and charge to the bimolecular target with which they interact and therefore will bind to it. Drug design often but not essentially relies on computer modelling techniques. This type of modelling is often referred to as computer-aided drug design. Lastly, drug design that relies on the information of the three-dimensional structure of the bimolecular target is known as structure-based drug design. The phrase drug design is to some extent a contradiction, but what is really meant by drug design is ligand design (i.e., design of a small molecule that will bind tightly to its target). Although modelling techniques for prediction of binding affinity are reasonably effective, there are many other properties, e.g. such as bioavailability, lack of side effects, metabolic half-life, etc. That first must be optimized before a ligand can become a safe and efficient drug. These other characteristics are often difficult to optimize using rational drug design techniques (drug design, 2014). Typically a drug target is a key molecule involved in a particular metabolic or signalling pathway that is specific to a disease condition or pathology or to the infectivity or survival of a microbial pathogen. There are some methods that attempt to inhibit the functioning of the pathway in the diseased state by causing a key molecule to stop functioning. Drugs may be designed that bind to the active region and inhibit this main molecule. Another method may be to enhance the normal pathway by promoting specific molecules in the normal pathways that may have been affected in the diseased state. Also adding to that, these drugs should also be designed so as not to affect any other important off-target molecules or anti-targets that may be similar in appearance to the target molecule, since drug communications with off-target molecules may lead to undesirable side effects. Sequence homology is frequently used to identify such risks (drug design, 2014). Most frequently, drugs are organic small molecules produced through chemical mixture, but biopolymer-based drugs, also known as biologics, which is produced through biological processes, are becoming gradually more common. In addition, mRNA-based gene silencing technologies may have therapeutic applications (drug design, 2014). There are two types of drug design; one is Ligand based and the other Structure based drug design. Ligand based drug design is when you don’t know the structure. On the other hand, structure based drug design is when you do know the structure. Methods of drug design: 2.1.1Ligand-based Ligand based drug design, which is also sometimes referred to as indirect drug design, depends on the information given of other molecules that attach to the biological object. A pharmacophore model can be derived by using these other molecules that attach to the biological object. A pharmacophore is a theoretical description for molecular features that are essential in order to obtain molecular recognition of ligand by a biological macromolecule, a very large molecule. This defines the minimum essential structural features a molecule needs to have for it to attach to the object. In other words a model of the biological object can be built based on the information obtained of what attach to it and this model can also be used for designing new molecular objects that act together with the biological object. On the other hand, a quantitative structure activity relationship which correlation between calculated properties of molecules and their experimentally determined biological activit y, can be derived. These quantitative structure activity relationships in turn can be used to predict the activity of new analogues (Ligand-based drug design, 2014). 2.1.2Structure based The other method is called structure-based drug design. Structure based drug design, which is also referred to as direct drug design, depends on the information given about the three dimensional structure of the biological object gained from methods such as x-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy. If an experimental structure of an object is not available then it can be possible to make a homology model of the object based on the experimental structure of a related protein. Using the structure of the biological object candidate drugs that are predicted to attach to the high affinity and selectivity to the object can be designed using interactive graphics and the intuition of a medicinal chemistry or various automated computational procedures to suggest new drug candidates. The knowledge about the structural dynamics and electronic properties about ligands increased with more information concerning three dimensional structures of bimolecular objects. Current methods for structure ba sed drug design can be divided roughly into two categories. Fragment based Fragment based drug design involve Identifying low molecular weight compounds that weakly attach to a biological object macromolecule and will then be modified or connected to yield potent inhibitors. The specificity of these low difficulty and low affinity molecules has rarely been discussed in the writings (Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, 2014). Computational drug design Drugs and associated biologically active molecules can be studied, improved and discovered by using computational chemistry in computer-aided drug design. In computer-aided drug design the most important aim is to predict if a certain molecule will attach to an object and if that is the case then how strongly does it attach. Often molecular dynamics or molecular mechanics are mostly used to predict the conformation of the small molecule and to model conformational changes in the biological object that might occur when the small molecule attach to it. An estimation of the binding affinity can also be obtained by the use of molecular mechanics methods. Likewise, information based scoring function can also be used in order to obtain binding affinity predictions (Young, 2009). The methods mentioned use statistical techniques such as linear regression, neural nets, machine learning, etc. This is used in order to derive estimated binding affinity equations by adding experimental affinities to computationally derived communication energies among the object and the molecule. If it is possible, the computational method will succeed in estimating affinity before a compound is fused. Therefore, in principle, just a single compound is needed to fuse. This is more efficient and will save a lot of time and money. However, the current computational methods available are not as perfect yet. At its best the computational methods gives just qualitatively accurate approximations of affinity. At the moment it still requires a few repetition of design, fusion and tests until a desired prime drug is found (Young, 2009). List of reference: Ssci-inc.com. 2014. Crystallization Impact on the Nature and Properties of the Crystalline Product. [online] Available at: http://www.ssci-inc.com/Information/RecentPublications/ApplicationNotes/CrystallizationImpact/tabid/138/Default.aspx [Accessed: 8 Mar 2014]. Drug design. 2014. [e-book] Available through: strbio.biochem.nchu.edu.tw https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=trct=jq=esrc=ssource=webcd=3cad=rjauact=8ved=0CEIQFjACurl=http://strbio.biochem.nchu.edu.tw/classes/special%20topics%20biochem/course%20ppts/course3.pdfei=b1YnU4D9BPC00QXdooHIDgusg=AFQjCNHxw8n3fRX0CfwB5yUQ9JXkts-vgA [Accessed: 17 Mar 2014]. Ligand-based drug design. 2014. [e-book] Available through: strbio.biochem.nchu.edu.tw https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=trct=jq=esrc=ssource=webcd=3cad=rjauact=8ved=0CEIQFjACurl=http://strbio.biochem.nchu.edu.tw/classes/special%20topics%20biochem/course%20ppts/course3.pdfei=b1YnU4D9BPC00QXdooHIDgusg=AFQjCNHxw8n3fRX0CfwB5yUQ9JXkts-vgA [Accessed: 17 Mar 2014]. Young, D. C. 2009. Computational drug design. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 2014. Fragment based drug design: from experimental [Curr Med Chem. 2012] PubMed NCBI. [online] Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22934764 [Accessed: 18 Mar 2014].

Scent of Apples Analysis

There are 4 characters of the story ‘Scent of Apples' by Bienvenido Santos. In the story, you will read about Celestino Fabia, Ruth and Roger. The fourth character is the author himself who also plays a role in the story. In my recent lurking on websites that feature blog posts about writing and reading fiction, I have come across an article created by a freelance writer. In her post, she explained the manner in which she writes. At first I thought I was in for a very discombobulating read, considering that her writing style was actually not average and that her method may involve serious reference to classical didactic writers found on literature textbooks. But her style was surprisingly simple. She said that before she can write anything, she needs to come up with a single word from which all thoughts and ideas in the article would be derived. The Scent of Apples by Bienvenido Santos reminds me of this writing style. Of course, that statement wasn’t intended to pose a comparison but was just an effect of a serious and curious rumination of an amateur reader – a sudden gush of ideas stemming from a glimpse of literary schema. Nostalgia, as it seems, is the word from which the entire short story emanates. What’s more wonderful about the literary work was that the author doesn’t have to be blunt to elucidate. In fact, the work is simple yet it can rival the literary audacities of other short stories. It is an established rule in writing that one needs to carefully think of a title that makes a literary work worth reading. Santos’ choice of title is an effortless adherence to this rule for it runs from the literal to the metaphorical and back, suggesting that various interpretations of readers from all ranges of literary exposure are appropriate. The story itself is a display of artistic versatility – a confirmation that however one interprets the title, the story won’t lose its meaning. For this, The Scent of Applesis more than just a story of an immigrant Filipino. The story opened with a brief introduction of where the author was. The imagery was vivid albeit the absence of several sentences teeming with adjectives, an introduction which writers like Sarah Dunant and J. R. R. Tolkien may consider a literary Scrooge. When I arrived in Kalamazoo it was October and the war was still on. Gold and silver stars hung on pennants above silent windows of white and brick-red cottages . . To compensate, however, the writer brings up a scene which everyone could relate to. And why would the physical environment matter when loneliness is already palpable in the mere look of a stranger’s face, enough to see and feel how longing creeps in their whole being. . . an old man burned leaves and twigs while a gray-haired woman sat on the porch, her red hands quiet on her lap, watching the smoke rising above the elms, both of them thinking the same thought perhaps, about a tall, grinning boy with his blue eyes and flying hair, who went out to war . . . The historical period in which the literary work was written also contrib ute to the creation of an almost tangible environment despite the sparseness of descriptive text. One thing that unites humans into an unwritten bond of brotherhood is the war, along with the bitterness of living during its span and surviving its cruelty. Everything seems to be reminiscent of souls sent to a battle falsely thought of as great; for what is great in something when it takes lives, tears hearts and ends happiness? . . . where could he be now this month when leaves were turning into gold and the fragrance of gathered apples was in the wind? . . . Under the lampposts the leaves shone like bronze. And they rolled on the pavements like the ghost feet of a thousand autumns long dead, long before the boys left for faraway lands without great icy winds and promise of winter early in the air, lands without apple trees, the singing and the gold! Amidst the gloominess of the location, the author was expected to speak before an audience regarding the culture of the Philippines, which was now becoming a â€Å"lost country†. It is when a Filipino farmer, Celestino Fabia, asked about the difference between Filipinas then and now, to which the author responded that though their physical appearance changed, they remain the pure-hearted and nice women like their past counterparts. The farmer was pleased with the answer and he invited the author over to his house so he could meet his family. During their trip to Celestino’s house the next day, the author discovered what his life in the Philippines was. And when he met his family, he was struck by their simplicity and contentedness. Celestino’s life stories hit him with the realization that women, or people, regardless of whatever culture, possess a charitable and kind heart. That hospitality is not a racial trademark but an innate human quality. Ruth got busy with the drinks. She kept coming in and out of a rear room that must have been the kitchen and soon the table was heavy with food, fried chicken legs and rice, and green peas and corn on the ear. Even as we ate, Ruth kept standing, and going to the kitchen for more food. Roger ate like a little gentleman. Along with this, the farmer’s relationship with his wife manifested that theirs was a relationship beyond the notion that companionship is a commodity. They stayed with each other through thick and thin. Women, even miles beyond the Pacific, are loving, loyal and warm-hearted – the same characteristics Celestino used to describe Filipinas he was acquainted with. His wife Ruth, at some extent, went way beyond the adjectives. Ruth stayed in the hospital with Fabia. She slept in a corridor outside the patients' ward and in the day time helped in scrubbing the floor and washing the dishes and cleaning the men's things. They didn't have enough money and Ruth was willing to work like a slave. Celestino’s life seemed to hit a sensitive cord within the author for he offered to send news to his family back home. But the farmer declined. This scene creates the peak of the climactic revelations of the life of an immigrant Filipino in times of war. No matter how strong the nostalgia is, or dire the desire to be home, an exile can’t leave the place to where he was banished. It may be because of fear of being long forgotten, or the consolation one gets from people who tried to complete them no matter if the attempt can only get them somewhere still far from nirvana. Whatever that is, the pain of an individual whose heart stretches to both ends of the world has no measure. And Bienvenido Santos clearly, albeit succinctly, showed all those truths. Thus, The Scent of Apples was an expected masterpiece. Besides, who else can understand things â€Å"peculiar to the exile† other than an exile himself?

Sexual Abuse And Assault Act - 1499 Words

Sexual Abuse and Assault As the words of sexual abuse or sexual assault come to mind, people would ignore the subject as seeing sexual abuse as an unimportant topic to be talked about. In addition, they will often criticize that women are usually the victims being targeted, when in reality, this issue has been happening to men as well as innocent children. Sexual abuse is no laughing matter, there are people who did not even ask for it to happen to them, because all they want to do is return to live a normal life, but they cannot. Moreover, there are people who choose to either not get involved with the issue or decide that it is best to ignore the topic all together. Sexual abuse happens everywhere to anyone at any time; it does not choose a specific race, sex or age. Most still do not understand the outcomes of how sexual abuse can affect people in the worst ways. 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Boko Haram And The Nigerian Government Of Kidnapping Essay

For years, Shekau had been very vocal in accusing the Nigerian government of kidnapping and abducting the wives and children of Boko Haram’s members. This angered Shekau, as he saw the feud to be between Boko Haram and Nigeria to be strictly between themselves. He viewed the abduction of their wives and children as an even more personal attack on his groups and swore to get revenge for â€Å"the rape and deaths of our families.† Even though Boko Haram threatened to kidnap many of the Nigerian government’s families, they did not make good on their threats until February of 2013. On the 19th of February, 2013, a small group of Boko Haram soldiers kidnapped seven French citizens in Borneo, and moved them back into Nigeria. The subsequent ransom demand was for $2 million dollars. This began to set the stage for the primary form of terror used by Boko Haram. However, many of Boko Haram’s fighters were in Mali, fighting alongside AQIM against the French in cursion into Mali’s civil war. 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